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Abundance of Cx. This study identified landscape, spatial, temporal and anthropogenic factors influencing the presence and abundance of adult female Ae.
The primary mosquito of interest was Ae. Results indicated that 1 on a state-wide scale, Ae. Landscape and anthropogenic variable analyses identified a few characteristics that impact container-breeding mosquito species across the region, but, overall, variables differed in each urban cluster in relation to the presence and abundance of oviposition-seeking and host-seeking adult container-breeding mosquitoes.
Aedes aegypti in southern Oklahoma is significantly linked with distance of the urban cluster from Texas. The re-discovery of established populations of Ae. Since then, Aedes aegypti has been reported in most Texas counties bordering the southern and western borders of Oklahoma [ 7 ] so it was not surprising to find Ae.
The limited distribution of Ae. On the west side, Ae. The detection of one female in Davis, central Oklahoma, was interesting but we suspect it was from a temporary population as no others were collected at that site in or in several attempts in Geographically separated from established populations in central Oklahoma by the Arbuckle mountains natural barriers of dispersal [ 33 ] , the movement from Ae. This needs further follow-up as the potential northern expansion of Ae.
One of the most interesting results from the study involved potential interactions between Ae. In the three cities where most Ae. The presence of both egg-laying and host-seeking adult female Ae. These areas of low vegetation also correlate with an increase in impervious surface in urban cores, a predictive habitat of Ae.
These relationships with vegetation may be appropriate given the general vegetative layout of Altus in dry, arid south western Oklahoma.
Both species were collected in almost equal numbers of traps throughout the city, most notably the majority of the GAT traps in the urban core area, an area of considerably limited vegetation which may have biased the model. In Marietta, OK, USA, the southernmost city in the eastern transect, a similar presence of both species was recorded with the majority of both collected in GAT traps in the urban core. The lack of association of presence of any mosquito species with vegetation variables in Marietta, OK, USA, suggests that vegetation likely plays a limited role in the habitat selection.
However, that relationship changed in Ardmore, OK, USA, with the presence of both species significantly associated with lower percentages of vegetation. While most Ardmore, OK, USA, neighborhoods surrounding the urban core have a high proportion of trees, the urban core is surprisingly low in vegetation which may have factored into the model. All three species of mosquitoes were significantly more likely to be present and most abundant between mid-July and end of sampling in August.
This association with later sampling times is most likely directly related to higher temperature and relative humidity as reported for all three species in similar settings [ 40 , 41 ]. In US-based studies, Ae. Like Ae. The impact of abiotic and biotic factors on the development of Ae. One interesting result was the higher abundance of Cx. Future studies are needed to identify how climatic components limit Cx.
The ubiquity of Ae. The presence of Ae. Including data from both trap types, the association of Ae. On the other hand, abundance of Ae. Higher abundance of host-seeking Ae. While biases in trap placement may have led to some of these ambiguous results, overall, it aligns with other landscape-focused studies in the United States [ 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ].
The low R 2 values indicate the land cover variables do not fully explain what is really driving the presence and abundance at a biologically relevant level in the different cities. While not the main objective of the study, results confirmed that GAT traps are an excellent low-cost alternative for determining the distribution of container-breeding Aedes species in small cities.
GAT traps were developed as means to collect adult gravid female container-breeding Aedes species [ 36 ] and were tested in field-conditions involving large urban areas [ 50 ]. BG-Sentinel traps, alternatively, were designed for host-seeking mosquitoes [ 51 ]. In general, GAT traps effectively trapped adult container-breeding Aedes species in all of the urban clusters as the presence of Ae.
However, as reported by others, Sentinel traps collected significantly more Ae. The collection of Ae. This invasion of Ae. While all attempts were made to adjust for limitations, it is difficult to account for everything in a geographically-varied and labor-intensive study.
While a complete season of sampling until end of October may have provided a more complete picture of how vegetation and other variables impact container-breeding communities, collections were terminated before populations of Ae. The period of sampling, however, did provide adequate amount of time to monitor the rise of population numbers in the season and indicated how different variables impact species presence and abundance.
As one of the first to evaluate landscape variables with container-breeding mosquito species collected using GAT traps in small cities, the results may have been biased for the urban contexts in which the study was carried out.
However, the widespread detection of the presence of container-breeding species, especially Ae. Additionally, the use of permethrin in the GAT traps may have been repellant at some stages of the project. As a comparison was not done between impregnated and non-impregnated traps when first initiated, it may have limited collection numbers in some places. In regard to various variables, restriction of collections to areas in the front of residences and businesses may have limited the actual numbers of mosquitoes collected and as well as reduced the actual numbers of containers counted at a particular site.
Conversely, establishing clutter levels using Google Earth images, which may not be up-to-date, may also have produced some variable bias. In conclusion, this study identified unique relationships of container-breeding mosquitoes with landscape and anthropogenic variables in an understudied region of the US.
The association of Ae. The unique landscapes of small urban clusters throughout the southern Great Plains where Aedes species thrive provide challenges for conceptualizing regional mosquito management. In considering how to effectively control container-breeding species, it is apparent that specialized management plans need to be developed for each city with consideration for vegetation and different anthropogenic variables.
While providing a baseline on which to begin developing effective mosquito control management strategies, more research, specifically into variables involved with the ecology and distribution of Ae. We thank Thomas Hess for assistance in the field, Lisa Coburn for help with mosquito identification, the Oklahoma State University extension personnel and local city leadership who assisted in helping us identify trapping locations in each city each household and business who allowed us access to their property, and Kristy K.
Bradley for support in acquiring funding for the project. Table S2: univariate analysis of Aedes aegypti presence by habitat-related variables collected in three cities in Oklahoma between June and August Table S3: univariate analysis of Aedes albopictus presence by habitat-related variables collected in six cities in Oklahoma between June and August Table S4: univariate analysis of Aedes albopictus abundance by habitat-related variables by two different traps in six cities in Oklahoma between June and August Conceptualization, J.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Insects v. Published online Oct Jordan D. Sanders , 1 Justin L. Talley , 1 Amy E. Frazier , 2 and Bruce H. Find articles by Jordan D.
Justin L. Find articles by Justin L. Amy E. Bruce H. Find articles by Bruce H. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Sep 25; Accepted Oct This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Associated Data Supplementary Materials insectss Abstract Simple Summary Mosquito-borne diseases are a growing human health concern in the United States.
Abstract As mosquito-borne diseases are a growing human health concern in the United States, the distribution and potential arbovirus risk from container-breeding Aedes mosquitoes is understudied in the southern Great Plains. Keywords: mosquito, Aedes , urban, Oklahoma, Great Plains. Introduction Vector-borne diseases are a growing human health concern in the United States [ 1 ].
Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Table 1 Explanatory variables collected during summer for habitat preference analysis. Table 2 Mosquito species collected in six Oklahoma cities using two trapping methods between June and August Results 3.
Mosquito Collection Between June and August , commercial or residential sampling sites were sampled in six cities along two regional bi-weekly transects in southern Oklahoma Figure 1. Figure 2. Aedes aegypti Based on a total of species-specific trapping events, presence of Ae.
Table 3 Stepwise logistic regression analysis of Ae. Aedes albopictus Relatively large numbers of Ae. Table 4 Stepwise logistic regression analysis of Ae. Culex pipiens Complex Presence of Cx. Discussion This study identified landscape, spatial, temporal and anthropogenic factors influencing the presence and abundance of adult female Ae.
Conclusions In conclusion, this study identified unique relationships of container-breeding mosquitoes with landscape and anthropogenic variables in an understudied region of the US. Acknowledgments We thank Thomas Hess for assistance in the field, Lisa Coburn for help with mosquito identification, the Oklahoma State University extension personnel and local city leadership who assisted in helping us identify trapping locations in each city each household and business who allowed us access to their property, and Kristy K.
Click here for additional data file. Author Contributions Conceptualization, J. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References 1. Rosenberg R. Vital signs: Trends in reported vectorborne disease cases—United States and territories, — Mortal Wkly. Carlson C. An ecological assessment of the pandemic threat of Zika virus. PLoS Negl. Nsoesie E. Global distribution and environmental suitability for chikungunya virus, to Euro Surveill.
Zohdy S.
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